An understanding of product is essential for effective marketing Essay

An understanding of product is essential for effective marketing. Discuss - Essay Example The welfare of customers and other stakeholders must be considered as the primary objective of a business. In this respect, marketing activities includes all these important factors that enhances the value of an organisation and ultimately leads to wealth creation of its stakeholders. Marketing is broad concept and a crucial primary activity of a value chain. According to Robert Skrob, â€Å"using sound marketing principle, strategies, and techniques will allow you to build a large list, form great relationships with your clients, and provide them with outstanding products and services - things they want, get value from, and that you are proud of† (Skrob, 2008, p.63). Therefore, for establishing and achieving long term success, a business organisation must formulate an effective marketing strategy. The increasing competition in the business world is one of the vital reasons that have increased the significance of marketing strategy. A successful marketing strategy enables an o rganisation to achieve competitive advantage. It enables a company to gain an upper hand position in the market. Product or service is the core factor that serves the consumers’ demand and utility. It is the prime factor for running a business. This paper will attempt to deal with the understanding of product for effective marketing. In this respect, the paper will discuss various aspects of product that affect product strategies. Various theories and models will be presented to support the primary objective of this essay. Finally in the conclusion section, overall discussions and analysis will be summed up. In the process of strategic management, a marketer must consider four primary component of marketing. These marketing components are product, price, promotion and place. The four components of marketing are known as ‘marketing mix’ or four ‘Ps of marketing’. Marketing mix can be defined as the basis of marketing strategy and it â€Å"establishes

The design of an automated external defibrillator Essay

The design of an automated external defibrillator - Essay Example As such, this paper seeks to highlight the defibrillator in relation to the history, functional components and human engineering considerations. Defibrillators United Kingdom is faced with health crisis with the high incidences of heart attacks among its citizens. These indices are reportedly some of the highest in the world with cardiovascular diseases causing more deaths annually than any other disease or condition. It is estimated that of the 150,000 people who have heart attacks annually, 94,000 of them die owing to various variables (Handler and Coghlan 2008). Research indicates that over one million people over the age of 35 in the United Kingdom have suffered a heart attack, and a third of these victim die before getting to the hospital. The scale of the burden is felt in the economy with escalating costs of health care as indicated by the billions spent annually by the UK government on cardiovascular diseases (Handler and Coghlan 2008). The relatively high incidences of heart attacks in UK are of great concern to health care professionals and other stakeholders, which have seen them, consolidate their efforts in order to reduce the effects. Stakeholders such as medical engineers and manufacturers team up with healthcare professionals in an effort to brainstorm on the possible solutions in line with technological advances. This front has seen the successful adoption and incorporation of technology in healthcare facilities in form of medical devices. According to the European Union definition, a medical device is an apparatus or instrument that is designed for preventative, diagnostic, monitoring, or therapeutic purposes and its purpose is not achieved through pharmacological, immunological or metabolic means (Krutmann 2011). Similarly, the mode of action of medical devices is not through chemical action in a patient’s body, although may be assisted in its functions through such means. As such, it is essential that medical devices exceed the thresh old under the European Union regulations, which call for detailed records of the products, designing and construction is limited to qualified personnel, and comprehensive risk assessment should be done (Jacobson and Murray 2007). The key function of a medical device can be illustrated from scientific information quoted by the manufacturer in line with functional principle and the manufacturer’s labelling. Medical devices vary in their capacity and level of sophistication ranging from tongue depressors to haemodialysis equipment. Owing to the role played by medical devices in the provision of healthcare services, it is critical that appropriate guidelines and regulations are adhered to (Kramer, Xu and Kesselheim, 2012). It is for this reason that biomedical engineering steps in to fill embark on the key aspects of medical devices that involve initial designing, system analysis and practical application to ensure quality and efficient products. Among the medical devices are def ibrillators, which play a crucial role in the relieving heart attacks in areas away from medical facilities. This paper seeks to highlight defibrillators as a medical device while focussing on their history, scope of application and safety aspects of the device with regard to human factors engineering. Fibrillation is characterised by accelerated and irregular contraction of heart muscle fibres, which is attributed to a deranged electrical activity of the heart. Fibrillation

Social and Economic Impact of Tuberculosis

Social and Economic Impact of Tuberculosis Introduction Overview Tuberculosis is a common and infectious communicable disease that is caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is of two principle kinds: pulmonary TB, which usually attacks the lungs, and extra-pulmonary TB, which attacks any part of the body, such as: the lymphatic, pleural, bone and/or joint, genitourinary, miliary, peritoneal, meninges and/or central nervous system (CNS), and all other sites combined. Pulmonary TB sometimes combined with extra pulmonary tuberculosis (Parimon, 2008; Sreeramareddy et al., 2008; Friedman, 2001). Tuberculosis is spread in form of droplets which are expelled when the infected persons cough, sneeze, speak, or sing. Close, prolonged, frequent, or intense contacts are the main ways that leads to 22% of the infection rate. Other resources include: foreign-born from areas where TB is common, residents and employees living in plagued congregate settings, health care workers who serve severely infected clients, low-income populations, highly inflicted racial or ethnic minority populations, children exposed to severely infected adults, and persons who inject illicit drugs. Extra pulmonary TB that occurs outside the lungs may spread through lymphatic or hematogenous dissemination to any tract or through coughing and swallowing to the gastrointestinal tract. Such a type of bacteria may remain dormant for years at a particular site before causing the disease. Since extra pulmonary TB can affect virtually all organs, it has a wide variety of clinical manifestations. A matter which causes difficulty and delay in its diagnosis (Mehta, 1991; Gonzalez et al., 2003). Though, it is said to be more often diagnosed in women and young patients (Rieder et al., 1990; Gonzalez et al., 2003; Yang et al., 2004; Noertjojo et al., 2002; Cowie and Sharpe, 1997; Antony et al., 1995; Chan-Yeung et al.,2002). In the United States, extra pulmonary TB is associated with ethnic minorities and with those born in other countries (Rieder et al., 1990) while in Asia, lymphatic TB occupies the front position of the risky infectious diseases (Cowie and Sharpe, 1997, 1998; Moudgil and Leitch, 1994; Nisar et al., 1991; Ormerod, et al., 1991). A study of Somali TB patients in Minnesota showed frequent lymphatic TB as well (Kempainen, et al., 2001). In HIV-infected patients, the frequency of extra pulmonary TB depends on the degree of decrease in cellular immunity (Huebner and Castro, 1995; Barnes, et.al., 1991). While in patients with

Lolita Essay -- Literary Analysis, Vladimir Nabokov

A Love Story: Or Is It? â€Å"Lolita, light of my life, fire of my loins, my sin, my soul† (Nabokov 9). Quoted from Vladimir Nabokov’s novel Lolita, Humbert Humbert briefly describes his sensibilities towards his love Lolita. I’ve italicized love for the reason that this book is perceived often as not a true American love story but as a pedophile’s lust. The reasoning for the italicization is because I wanted to emphasis on the point that this book offers more than that of a pedophile’s love. Nabokov’s novel does a very good job of creating an interesting yet unorthodoxed plot. What Nabokov might find acceptable in today’s society, some people might find very offensive and disrupting. He does this to grab the reader’s attention; therefore, building their interests by having them see the other side of things. Why many readers may find this book to be associated with pornography or just another literary piece surrounded around pedophilia, Nabokov hits you with textual evidence, which may sway reader’s minds. As a reader of this novel, I am compelled to show you how this book is a true American â€Å"Love Story.† Before I move on, I’d like to actually show you that Humbert is indeed considered a pedophile and let’s not forget this. Gunter Schmidt, once wrote that: Pedophiles are men whose sexual wishes and desires for relationship bonds and love are focused either primarily or exclusively on children who have not reached puberty, whereby the relative importance of each of these three areas—sexuality, relationship, and love— may vary, as it does with other people as well. (Schmidt 473) As you can see, Schmidt has laid out a very narrow and precise definition of a pedophile. With only reading the first line, I noticed that auto... ...articles written by knowledgeable researches that help back up my argument. I agree that one may say that Humbert was a pedophile but people can change in flash and I feel that the evidence I have provide you with is substantial. Humbert isn’t a bad guy in the least bit, he’s just confused but then soon finds reality. Lolita was the best medicine for him. Lolita’s actions towards Humbert somewhat pushed him away from the pedophile stage because Humbert felt that he was the one being used. She was very mature than the other prospected nymphets, which had a great impact on him. Humbert has feared love his entire life until Lo enters his life. This novel may have some disturbing and gruesome parts but this just leads to the ultimate goal and that’s love. With evidence provided, Nabokov’s stylish, high-toned story is the greatest love story every published.

Michael Huemer: “America’s Unjust Drug War” Essay

In the essay â€Å"America’s Unjust Drug War† by Michael Huemer, Huemer discusses the facts and opinions around the subject on whether or not the recreational use of drugs should be banned by law. Huemer believes that the American government should not prohibit the use of drugs. He brings up the point on drugs and how they harm the users and the people in the user’s life; he proves that the prohibition on drugs in unjust. Huemer believes that drug prohibition is an injustice to Americans’ natural rights and questions why people can persucute those who do drugs. The most prominent argument against the use of drugs is the harm it has on the users. Although drug use is potentially very harmful to the users the government should not be allowed to prohibit people from harming themselves. Many things people regularly take part in are equally as harmful as drug use such as â€Å"smoking tobacco, drinking alcohol, eating too much, riding motorcycles, having unprotected or promiscuous sex†¦(Huemer, Para. 5).† There is no way that the government can prohibit all those acts for it is not any of their business. One might argue that drug use is more harmful then those acts, they would be wrong in most cases because all of those acts lead to death which is as harmful as you can get. The Office of National Drug Control Policy claims that drugs kill eighteen thousand Americans a year while tobacco kills four hundred and forty thousand Americans per year. Another relevant statistic is obesity causes up to four hundred and twenty thousand deaths per year. Neither tobacco smokers nor obese people have been punished yet many drug users are imprisoned. Another point prohibitionists suggest against the use of drugs is that drugs harm one’s quality of life however many other things harm one’s quality of life such as dropping out of high school or working at the same job your entire life; all of these are choices people make and the only choice that is persecuted is doing drugs, the others are considered ridiculous to persecute. The money that drug users use on money is equivalent to those who gamble or spend it on frivolous things leaving both lives at smaller quality, yet the drug users are persecuted. Although the use of drugs has the same affects on other people’s life choices drug users are persecuted and people who make equally life-threatening choices are left to make those choices with no persecutions. Another argument against the use of drugs is the harm it potentially has against the people around the users. People around drug users do have the potential to be harmed from them yet so do many other things; driving could potentially hurt people and many other things, yet anyone who has a license can drive a vehicle without being persecuted. Every choice in life has risks of hurting people yet the only one choice is persecuted; drugs. Although it seems absurd to punish people for being inconsiderate or making not so good choices the outcome of their choices on the public are similar to drug users. If drugs are truly unjust then America has over four hundred and fifty thousand people in jail unjustly. They are not just being punished for no reason they are being punished for exercising their right as a human, making their own choices. Everyone has the right to choose to do drugs or not to do them. If there was a drug that took away the users freedom to make choices or to attack and hurt other people then the government could step in and help, however no drug exists that have that effects on people. The belief supporting that it is a human right to choose to do drugs comes from the idea that everyone owns their own body. So a person can make any choice as what they can do to their body, harmful or not. An example of this can be seen in the woman’s right to have or not have an abortion. Some people believe it is the woman’s choice because it is her body but others believe she should not be allowed to because it hurts the fetus, which is potentially a live human. Most people support the belief that people have the right to choose what the do to their body however with this right you may not use their body to harm others. Prohibitionists argue that drug use is not ones right over their body because the drugs are making the choices and not the person freely, maybe it is not their fault they have abused drugs it could have been psychological compulsion or something similar. It is still unjust to persecute these people because they are not morally responsible for that choice. However if users do freely decide to use drugs then they are exercising their rights and the government has no right to interfere. Overall Huemer looks at all the prohibitionists arguments that could be thought of and disproves their belief on the laws against drug use. Huemer believes it is a human right to choose to do drugs just as it is to eat whatever food you choose even if it makes you obese, or smoke as many cigarettes a day even though you will probably die, and the choice to have an abortion. With life you have many choices you can make and with that choice comes the chance of hurting yourself either physically or mentally as well as people that surround you. In conclusion Huemer fully disagrees with the prohibits on the use of drugs in America with his belief that the persecutions are fully unjust as well as inhumane with many people in jail because they chose to use drugs.

Influences of the Forrester Effect and the Bullwhip Effect

A supply chain management is the broad concept which includes the management of the entire supply chain from the supplier of raw materials through the manufacturer, wholesaler, and retailer to the end consumer. However, certain dynamics exist among firms in the supply chain thereby causing inaccuracies and volatility of orders from the retailer to the primary suppliers and that these cause for operations, say, readjustments further upstream in the supply chain. The Forrester effect and the bullwhip effect influence the supply chain directly or indirectly through the components in the supply chain like manufacturers, suppliers, wholesalers, distributors, retailers, and customers in many ways. Bullwhip effect, also known as Forrester effect occurs when the demand order changes in the supply chain are amplified as they moved up the supply chain. It is termed as bullwhip effect because of the large magnitude of disturbances in the chain caused by a small disturbance at one end of the chain.Thus, in a typical supply chain for a consumer product, with less sales variation, there seem to be a pronounced variability in the retailers' orders to the wholesalers. Considerably, four major causes of the bullwhip effect have been identified. These are: 1. Demand forecast updating: this is the readjustment of demand forecasts by upstream managers as a result of future product demand signal. Forecasting is usually based on the order history from a company's immediate customers.Traditionally,every company in a supply chain usually prepares product forecasting for its production scheduling, capacity planning, inventory control and material requirement planning. It is contended that the signal from demand forecasting is a major contributor to the bullwhip effect. For example, if a manager uses, say, exponential smoothing (future forecast is always updated as demand increases) the order sent to the supplier reflects the amount needed to replenish the stocks to meet the requirements for future demands and safety stocks which might be considered necessary. 2. Order batching: Companies place orders with upstream organisations in a supply chain, using some inventory monitoring or control. As demand comes in, inventory is depleted but the company may not immediately place an order with the supplier. It often batches or accumulates demands before issuing an order. Sometimes the supplier cannot handle frequent order processing because of the substantial time and cost involved so instead of ordering frequently, companies may order weekly or fortnightly. This leads to two forms of order batching; periodic and pushing ordering. Many manufacturers place purchase orders with suppliers when they run their materials requirement planning (MRP) systems monthly; resulting in monthly ordering with suppliers. This is a periodic ordering. As an illustration, for a company that places orders once a month from its suppliers, the supplier faces a highly erratic stream of orders. Demands go up at one time during the month, followed by no demands for the rest of the month. This periodic ordering amplifies distortions and disruptions and contributes to the bullwhip effect. A similar effect becomes prevalent in push ordering phenomenon.Here, a company experiences regular surge in demand. As a result, customers ‘push' orders on the company periodically. Although the periodic surges in demand by some customers would be insignificant suppose all ordering are not made at the same time, however, it does not happen that way. The orders are more likely to overlap and cause the bullwhip effect to be felt most. 3. Price Fluctuations: Because of attractive offers like ‘buy one get one free'(BOGOF),price and quantity discounts, rebates and so on usually provided by manufacturers to distributors in the grocery industry, items are bought in advance of what is actually needed. This is referred to as ‘forward-buying' which is known to account for about $75bn to $100bn of inventory in the grocery industry in the United States. The result is that customers buy in bigger quantities that do not reflect their immediate needs with the view to stock for future use.Thus,these special price schemes, lead to speculative buying which is considered as costly to the supply chain. For example, Kotler reports that trade deals and consumer promotion constitute 47% and 28% of distributors and manufacturers respectively of their total promotion budgets. Considering a situation when a product's price is pegged low through the price schemes, more would be bought by the customer than actually needed. As the price returns to normal, the customer stops buying in order to use up its inventory. This triggers an irregular buying pattern of the customer which does not reflect its consumption pattern, and the variation of the buying quantities is much bigger than the variation of the consumption rate leading to the bullwhip effect or Forrester effect. Such a practice was called â€Å"the dumbest marketing ploy ever†. 4. Rationing and short gaming: rationing usually becomes the norm when demands exceed supply. Manufacturers allocate the amount in proportion to the amount ordered. During rationing customers exaggerate their real needs when they order for fear that the orders might be in short supply.Customers' overreaction in anticipation of shortages results when organisations and individuals make sound, rational economic decisions and ‘game' the potential rationing. The effect of this gaming is that little information is given to the supplier on the product's real demand by the customers' orders. The gaming practice is very common. Increases in orders are made not because of an increase in consumption but due to anticipation. Actually, the bullwhip or the Forrester effect is not just an economic error. Its influence on a company's supply chain management could be felt as well in a positive way. Thus, these four major causes of bullwhip effect somewhat influence or affect the supply chain management in number of ways: – Conflict between supply chain players. This is brought about as a result of no coordination amongst individual demand forecasts based on each supply chain player's sales history or strategy. – Large demand and supply fluctuations result in the need for high inventories to prevent stock outs. Because of the fluctuations in the supply chain, companies try to keep more stock than needed in order to avoid stock out and its attendant problems like loss of profit, customers and market share in some situations. – There is poor customer service as all demand might not be met. Customers are upset when their demands are not met especially from the suppliers they seem to rely on .This is as a result of the bullwhip effect. – Production scheduling and capacity planning becomes difficult due to large order swings. Because of the large distortions in demand due to bullwhip effect, capacity planning-the task of setting effective capacity of the operation in order that it can stand any demands placed on it-and production scheduling which is a detailed timetable in planning showing at what time or date jobs should start and when they should end to ensure that customers demand is met, are largely affected. This is known to usually affect several other performance indicators like costs, say due to under-utilization of capacity; revenues, working capital due to building up finished goods inventory prior to demand; quality by hiring temporary staff; speed could also be enhanced by surplus provision; dependability of supply will also be affected due to any unexpected disruptions; and flexibility will also be enhanced due to surplus capacity. – Extra plant expansion to meet peak demand. Another influence on the supply chain brought about by the Forrester effect or the bullwhip effect is to look for an additional plant capacity or expansion to cater for demand either as a result of low stock or increased demand which were distorted as the bullwhip effect struck. The implication is it can lead to large distortions and high costs. – High costs for corrections-large unexpected orders or supply problems necessitate expedited shipments and overtime. This might also affect the planning of the company's transport and logistics in terms of additional handling and administrative costs though there will be some benefits, the supply chain is affected. – Other influences are the following: collaboration, direct sales, smaller order batches or more frequent re-supply, unexpected shortages in inventory, price fluctuation, demand behaviour, stock market trading, information-sharing and profit variation. Notwithstanding these,there are some possible ways and means to minimise or reduce the bullwhip effect. The various initiatives for possible solution to the bullwhip effect are based on the underlying coordination mechanism. These mechanisms are namely, information sharing,;by this demand information at a downstream site is relayed upstream in time for processing; channel alignment, this is the coordination of pricing, transportation, inventory planning, and ownership between the upstream and downstream sites in a supply chain; and operational efficiency, are the activities that are pursued to improve performance like reduced costs and lead-time. In the light of these three mechanisms, some of the critical areas that can be looked at to reduce the impact of variability on the supply chain include aligning incentives to overall supply chain performance objectives; developing trust and contractual agreements between supply chain partners; approach such as delayed differentiation, designing for commonality; direct sales, vendor managed inventory, continuous replenishment; multi-echelon inventory control policies; lead time reduction through operational efficiency and design; lot size reduction using efficient transportation and distribution systems; price stabilization and uniform pricing. First and foremost understanding the causes of the bullwhip effect can help managers to find strategies to combat or curb it. Companies must make concerted efforts through various means available in their supply chain management in order to deal with these inconsistencies.

Essay Sample on Business Ethics Program

Essay Sample on Business Ethics Program Business Ethics essay: The world is in the age of innovations, with an exponential free market growth in a world economy. Never than before, more and more people and countries are getting interwoven through technology, spreading freedom and democratic ideals, to enhance free markets; to protect personal property rights; and at the same time encouraging respect for human rights, conserving the environment and the respect for human rights. Electronic businesses in the modern society are expected to adhere to standards of responsible business practices that are more than what has been in place traditionally. The need to maximize profits in virtual business where the traditional buyer-seller direct interaction is lost is in no way a license to go against society norms, standards, values and respect, quality and integrity. Electronic business must set up ethics program that should be controlled by the host nation. A business ethics program should therefore not set up either its workers or its enterprise for failure. Rather a business ethics program, strives to put the correct people in correct position is an e-business enterprise to foster and address stakeholders expectations. Ethical considerations in e-business will cut costs drastically. By empowering employees with clear working guidelines in their day to day business compliance with ethics and laws through using a well-defined business ethical program, restores the confidence of the business to its customers. A business ethics program provides means to detect and avoid any form of violation of ethics and law. It also provided employees with profound guidelines to run and manage such businesses. A business ethics program enhances an e-business enterprise reputation for integrity. By giving employees and remote workers in e-commerce enterprise adequate guidelines, ensures that the business carries out responsible business. Such businesses that have integrity reputation and a physical location are therefore likely to survive in these competitive markets.

Underclass stereotypes in the media.

Underclass stereotypes in the media. STEREOTYPING IN THE MEDIA:A response to Gregory Mantsios' essay Media Magic: Making Class InvisibleFor decades media has helped stratify culture by serving as a means to inform the public of the occurrences that take place in our society. "The mass media is arguably the most influential in molding public consciousness" (Mantsios 101). The more media plays a prominent role in highlighting situations in our society the more media stereotypes become inevitable. Stereotypes in the media usually classify individuals by their class, ethnicity, occupation, gender, and sexual orientation, giving the audience a generalized ideal of the characteristics of a particular group. However, Mantsios' essay Media Magic: Making Class Invisible focuses on the segregation of the middle-class and under-class, creating a division between one another, where "we" or "us" the middle-class are humiliated by "them" the under-class. False representation of the under-class and the victimization of the middle-clas s by the under-class are two points continuously exemplified in the media today.English: Differences in national income equality a...The media has a tendency "to focus on the plight of the poor, these stories are about middle-class opposition to the poor. Such stories tell us that the poor are an inconvenience and an irritation" (Mantsios 103).In a recent article titled Closing the Education Achievement Gap, the government is to make a major provision to the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The Act will provide $200 billion dollars, from "our" pockets, to schools with children from low-income families. The goal of the revision is to raise the achievement of children in low-income schools to those in higher-income, predominately white, families.When reading over the editorial and reviewing the photograph that accompanied the article, it was evident that the term "low-income" was portrayed by grueling neighborhoods populated by ethnic and visible minorities. The photos por trayed are a false representation...

A Tragic Heroine

Tragic Heroine that Triumph Margaret Edison’s play Wit is about Vivian Bearing, a professor of seventeenth century poetry, specializing in John Donne. She is a strong willed intellectual being treated for ovarian cancer. Vivian lives a very secluded life and avoids human emotional contact. Just like any tragic hero, Vivian has flaws that prevent her from human kindness, which leads to her downfall. Her treatment of cancer causes her to realize that she needs emotional connection, which she has missed her whole life. Although her flaws are her intellect and wit that cause her an inability to connect emotionally with people around her, she becomes noble because she begins to express her emotions and accept kindness. Vivian Bearing has lived an intellectual rather than emotional life. As a child, education was very important to her family. On her fifth birthday which she recalls as her best birthday she read a book (Edson 41). She would rather read a book than have a party, cake or even having friends over. Reading a book during her birthday is very ironic because she claims this to be her best birthday which is really unique, because this is horrible as any standard for a fifth birthday. Most five year olds want a party and cake. Vivian takes the book and she reads its spine intently. Reading a book attentively on her birthday proves Vivian’s obsession with learning and expanding her horizons. She is only interested in learning, not worried about connecting with people her own age or even her family. While she is reading her book, her father sits on his chair â€Å"disinterested but tolerant† (Edson 41). Since her father does not pay any attention to her, Vivian is emotionally detached from her father. She only knows education and learning. She never mentions receiving any affection as a child. This is the only time she mentions her childhood. One can only assume that because of this the character’s own remote personality reflects that of her father’s. It is very likely that she never received the gentle touch of affection from her dad, the way she probably would have from her mother, if the mother had been in the picture. We know that her mother died at the age of forty, but other than that, nothing else is either mentioned or displayed regarding her. Vivian’s intellect and crave for knowledge continues to prevent her from human emotional connections. We meet Vivian as a student in a flashback. Her scholarship was her consuming and unrelenting passion, blinding her to other concerns of life like making friends. Despite being advised by her professor to enjoy life, she resorts to withdrawing into the library instead of going out (Edson 15). Her toughness and strictness towards her education blinds her treatment of humanity. She remains lonely and uses her education to cover her need for showing and needing emotional attachment. She does not enjoy her college life like most students do. Her intellect refuses her to show a need of emotional connection with students her own age. Her emotional detachment is apparent when she is told that she has ovarian cancer. Instead of crying and being afraid of death, she begins to analyze and think. â€Å"Must read something about cancer. Must get some books, articles. Assemble a bibliography,† she explains (Edson 8). The character’s excessive need for knowledge, which can be perceived as her tragic flaw, causes her to be oblivious to the reality of her diagnosis. Vivian is consumed with learning that she is unable to grasp with the reality that she has a disease that is slowly killing her. Her need for knowledge can be seen as a flaw because this prevents her from becoming psychologically attached to anything or anyone. Vivian thrives on knowledge and her ability to learn and understand things and uses her intellect to avoid human contact. The character’s addiction to intellect has shut down her need for any human emotions. Vivian’s wit appears as rude and uncaring when she uses her wit to push people away. Vivian’s smart remarks to everything cause people around her and also people that meet her to be unable to create a relationship with Vivian. When Vivian is diagnosed with ovarian cancer, Dr. Kelekian uses the word â€Å"insidious† and defines it as â€Å"undetectable† (Edson 8). Vivian is unable to control her witty comments and could not resist the urge and decides to tell him the correct definition saying â€Å"treacherous†. Dr. Kelekian has a negative attitude towards her because of these corrections. Instead of treating her cancer, he decides to use her as research. Dr. Kelekian is unable to feel any compassion for her because she is rude. Vivian’s wittiness also appears as being uncaring. She is not liked very much by others, due to her unkindness. Previously, when a student asked for an extension on his paper, Professor Bearing rejects his request with a heartless comment. â€Å"Don’t tell me, your grandmother died† (Edson 63). Then she goes on to say, â€Å"Do what you will, but the paper is due when it is due† (Edson 63). Instead of showing some sentiment for the student, she is inconsiderate and cold-hearted towards him. She is so evil towards the student that no other student is able to feel comfortable around her and even speak to her as a person. She terrorizes her students inconsiderately and dispassionately. Vivian Bearing uses her wittiness to push people away so she does create an emotional attachment. Being put in hospital causes Vivian to reflect on her life and to realize how much she needs kindness. She even admits to craving kindness. She wants Susie to come see her to the point where she creates an emergency (Edson 64). She begins as an intellect, witty professor who is lonely, but now she is thirsty for a drop of kindness. Vivian’s hunger for kindness becomes apparent when she allows her nurse to call her sweetheart† (Edson 64) or honey(Edson 65). These are words Vivian has never been referred to in her life and she is comfortable with them. She realizes that it is acceptable to allow people to treat her like a person and be kind to her. Vivian starts to open up and shows her emotions without any problem or hesitation. At the end of the play when Vivian is lying in her deathbed, alone, shivering scared, and in pain, E. M. comes to her side. When her college professor Ashford comes to visit her, she asks Vivian if she wanted her to recite Donne, she replies â€Å"nooooo† (Edson 79). Vivian is finally realizing that her need for intellect and wit is not what she needs because she has received kindness. The emotional part of life is what she needs and not the complicated poems by Donne. As her time draws to a close, a sea change begins to work in the way Vivian thinks about life. As mentioned in the above paragraphs, Vivian has devoted her life to education and it is only through suffering that she learns that being extremely smart is not enough. It takes our heroine fifty years, and an insidious cancer to realize that it does not matter in the end how much you know since knowledge cannot possibly comfort you in death. Vivian says this line in the play â€Å"And death shall be no more, death thou shalt die (Edson 72-73). By these words she learns that death is nothing but a breath, a comma that separates life from life everlasting, Vivian’s last breath was nothing but a comma† and she has now moved on where she will live not by her knowledge, but by her heart. Though her body has died, her soul is awakened. Before Vivian’s final moments of life, she receives the attention and affection that she never had. She dies with a sense of peacefulness. Vivian Bearing is a very intellectual and witty individual who is dedicated to her love for know ledge. But because she is consumed by her incredible love for knowledge she lives a secluded life. Her downfall is that she is incapable of showing any emotions to another person. The play did not leave the audience with a sense of sadness or remorse, but with hope and respect for Vivian Bearing. She lived the final eight months of her life in extreme pain so doctors could gain more knowledge for future cancer patients. In the process, she learns that life is about humanity. This is what brings the audience to believe that this individual is a tragic hero who triumph and leaves one not with a sense of pity but one of empathy for her suffering.

Humans versus Nature-- which selects better for human survival, from a Essay - 1

Humans versus Nature-- which selects better for human survival, from a biological point of view - Essay Example The paper attempts to explore the numerous dangers that genetic engineering is likely to pose to the mankind. Plants, bacteria, animals, viruses, insects and human beings, all are natures creation. Every living species has evolved on the earth through a long process taking millions of years. In natures design, every living being genetically mutates to survive; those who cannot – perish in the long run. However, humans are not satisfied in natures doing but want things in their control to create their own designs. It is argued that several medical conditions such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, Huntington Disease are due to genetic defects. Genetic understanding and knowledge can certainly prevent such diseases and can make mankind free from terrific life-long medical conditions. However, genetic advances, if go uncontrolled, may also disrupt the life on this planet. The point is that unchecked advances in genetic sciences are likely to create grave dangers for mankind in the years ahead. While some countries such as Canada, the UK, India and many more have prohibited sex-selection for non-medical reasons, it is not barred in the countries such as the US. As reported in a survey done in 2006, over 58 fertility clinics in the US allowed parents to choose sex of their child. According to Jeffrey Steinberg from the Fertility Institutes, soon it would be possible for the parents to choose not only sex of child but their eye color, hair color and skin color as it has come within the grasp of genetic scientists. In short, the custom-made kids could be available in a decade or so (Jabr 2013). The nature has built-in wisdom in managing the evolutionary process since ages that mankind is out to derail in the hope of achieving something better; however, in all likelihood may result into a big disaster. It is the uncertainty and the unknown that keeps the charm of the life intact; however, the rapid advances of genetic engineering will

Comparing two projects Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10500 words

Comparing two projects - Research Paper Example rojects preceded from necessity but while the Gautrain project is a Public Private Partnership (PPP) between the province of Gauteng and the Bombela Consortium, the A380 is a flagship project of a company whose majority shares are owned by European governments under a â€Å"Contractual Partnership.† As a PPP, the Gautrain project was initiated by the Gauteng province, which provided the land and the accompanying pertinent legislations. On the other hand, concessionaire Bombela, the winning private concessionaire, took care of the rest - subcontracting various aspects of the works from the civil works, electrical and mechanical works, operations and maintenance to its various partners. The risks are therefore shifted from Gauteng to Bombela. Airbus, on the other hand, divided the work on the A380 among its several partners whose plants are located across the European continent in accordance with the latter’s specialisation; their finished products eventually transported to Airbus’ main headquarters in Toulouse, France for assembly work. The cost of production of the Gautrain was primarily shouldered by the private concessionaire while the A380 was shouldered alone by the airplane manufacturer partly from money loaned to it by the respective government partners unde r a â€Å"launch loan.† Of the nine provinces constituting South Africa (SA hereafter), Gauteng is the smallest with its area comprising a mere 1.4% of the entire area of the country. As can be seen from Fig. 1, Gauteng (in yellow) is located in the northeastern portion and is landlocked by four other SA provinces. Despite its area and inaccessibility to export and import terminals, Gauteng is the economic center of South Africa 1 and is home to most of SA’s corporate headquarters and financial sector located in the province. 2 It comprises three very important urban areas: Pretoria, the capital of South Africa where the national political government is located; Johannesburg, the capital of the

Reflective journal on management skills Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reflective journal on management skills - Article Example A manager ought to be both a leader and a motivator. Before acting, a manager ought to consider the adverse effects her actions will have on both the immediate task at hand and the organization at large. A manager must always remember that the greatest asset in the organization is the people working there. In this instant scenario, the lead counselor dismissed the counselor’s ideas in a contemptuous manner that showed an inadequate possession of ‘people skills’. This is why the event occurred. This event is a good learning experience as it showed me how not to deal with employees when I become a manager. Employees need to feel appreciated. Reflecting on the scenario above, I have come to realize that even though as a manager I will have the final say on whatever action has to be taken, I need to be a good listener. This is especially crucial when I am listening to input that I personally consider as being worth nothing. This will change the way I interact with my staff. I don’t have to reject an idea in a manner that will leave the employee feeling worthless. I can do it in a better way. I have realized that employees being human, I need to respect their emotions. LaMalfa (2007, pg1) observes that â€Å"research shows that emotionally connected employees are the best employees because they are engaged and productive, and they feel validated and appreciated†. I need to make my employees appreciated so that I may be a good team leader. To achieve this I need to be more open and receptive to ideas from others especially those I consider my subordinates. This is because I am not perfect and the best ideas sometimes come from ‘subordinates’. Developing a teamwork attitude is perhaps the best way to achieve this transformation as I will then be seeing myself as being part of such ideas and won’t feel intimidated when a subordinate proposes changes to my ideas or even better ideas than mine. LaMalfa, K., 2007, The

Advanced Portfolio Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Advanced Portfolio Management - Research Paper Example Efficient market hypothesis works on the assumption that on the average the investors have rational expectation. With available information individual investor’s reactions are random and follow a normal distribution pattern. This in turn implies that no individual investor can outperform the market on a consistent basis. Individual investors may over or under react; individual investors may outperform or underperform for a short period. But all the deviations are random in nature and will self-correct in a short period. Thus market will always be right (Copeland and Weston, 1988). Among the three forms of efficiency, the weak form efficiency hypothesizes that the current market price does not reflect fair value and only reflects the past prices. Since it does not adapt to a change in current information, the future price cannot be predicted from past or current prices. Empirical evidence does not always support weak form efficiency of a market. There have been noted differences between stock market behavior in developed and developing countries. However research findings in different markets are not universally accepted (Elango & Hussein, 2010). Many comparative studies have been done to examine performances of many different stocks and variables results have been observed (Solink, 1973; Cooper, 1982; Urrutia, 1995; Dahel & Laabas, 1999; Rao & Shankaraiah, 2003). To compare the performance of stock markets in a rapidly changing economic scenario worldwide, it was decided to check for weak form efficiency in two developed countries and in two countries belonging to Gulf Co-operation Council for a considerably long period of time in very recent past. Four countries, the names of their stock indices considered and time periods chosen given below. Every week trades take place on 5 days of the week and the other two days are excluded from the analysis. However, given that the countries have different customs,

Strategy Of Oil Spill Disaster In The Gulf Of Mexico Essay

Strategy Of Oil Spill Disaster In The Gulf Of Mexico - Essay Example In the month of April, the year 2010, a platform for deepwater drilling in the Gulf, located fifty miles from the Louisiana coast capsized and sank due to an explosion. Several attempts to seal the top the well continued to be futile necessitating huge volumes of oil to spill and spread to the shores. The spills reached as far as the marshes Louisiana. The company that was behind the oil-drilling venture was the British Petroleum. The effects of this disaster are tremendous and cut across several sectors ranging from the economy to the biological sustainability. The oil spillage threatened the livelihood of more than four hundred species of wildlife. The sea animals whose lives were most threatened includes tuna, whales, and shrimps together with several species of birds. The land animals most affected by the disaster were the white-tailed deer, gray fox several amphibians like the snapping turtle and the alligator. The economic costs arising from the spillage in the Gulf were huge (The Daily Green 2010, p.1). For instance, by June 2010, the government had paid $ 62 million as compensation claims to 26,500 the residents in the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally, the insurers will likely spend up to $ 1.5 billion in compensation. Close to 12, 000 residents of Louisiana are now jobless due to oil spills in the Gulf (The Daily Green 2010, p.1). For instance, by June 2010, the government had paid $ 62 million as compensation claims to 26,500 the residents in the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally, the insurers will likely spend up to $ 1.5 billion in compensation. Close to 12, 000 residents of Louisiana are now jobless due to oil spills in the Gulf (The Daily Green 2010, p.1). This is not the initial time the British Petroleum industry has had to confront a disaster. A refinery that the company owns in the city of Texas experienced a massive explosion in 2005.

Sociology class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Sociology class - Essay Example The body is an aggregate of groups like the hands performing its tasks, the feet performing a different job, the head of another and so on and the different parts do not perform the same functions but are still interrelated with each other that one part cannot survive without the other. The same is true with human existence wherein people may be grouped in one way or another like the differentiation of jobs, interests and specializations but still each group can not tell the others that they are to live independently from them. Likewise, in the smaller scale, individuals are not able to do so because it is the characteristic of a human being to have a social life as the old adage goes, ‘no man is an island’. The study of human relations is given so much attention because somehow, all aspects of our lives are closely knit. There are principles in parenting that can be applied in being the father or leader of an organization or a manager of some business. Likewise, what is learned from a successful businessman can be learned by the laymen for him to apply in his parenting skills and improve his family’s financial status. Individuals may have their own lives but are still linked to others because of their need and so with social systems.

Strategy Of Oil Spill Disaster In The Gulf Of Mexico Essay

Strategy Of Oil Spill Disaster In The Gulf Of Mexico - Essay Example In the month of April, the year 2010, a platform for deepwater drilling in the Gulf, located fifty miles from the Louisiana coast capsized and sank due to an explosion. Several attempts to seal the top the well continued to be futile necessitating huge volumes of oil to spill and spread to the shores. The spills reached as far as the marshes Louisiana. The company that was behind the oil-drilling venture was the British Petroleum. The effects of this disaster are tremendous and cut across several sectors ranging from the economy to the biological sustainability. The oil spillage threatened the livelihood of more than four hundred species of wildlife. The sea animals whose lives were most threatened includes tuna, whales, and shrimps together with several species of birds. The land animals most affected by the disaster were the white-tailed deer, gray fox several amphibians like the snapping turtle and the alligator. The economic costs arising from the spillage in the Gulf were huge (The Daily Green 2010, p.1). For instance, by June 2010, the government had paid $ 62 million as compensation claims to 26,500 the residents in the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally, the insurers will likely spend up to $ 1.5 billion in compensation. Close to 12, 000 residents of Louisiana are now jobless due to oil spills in the Gulf (The Daily Green 2010, p.1). For instance, by June 2010, the government had paid $ 62 million as compensation claims to 26,500 the residents in the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally, the insurers will likely spend up to $ 1.5 billion in compensation. Close to 12, 000 residents of Louisiana are now jobless due to oil spills in the Gulf (The Daily Green 2010, p.1). This is not the initial time the British Petroleum industry has had to confront a disaster. A refinery that the company owns in the city of Texas experienced a massive explosion in 2005.

Microeconomic Theory Essay Example for Free

Microeconomic Theory Essay 1. Explain why society faces a trade-off between consumption goods and capital goods. Society is faced with trade off between consumption goods and capital goods in that resources are scarce, and therefore it has to make choices based on the opportunity costs of benefiting from consumption at present or having a greater level of consumption tomorrow through investment in capital goods. 2. Distinguish between absolute and comparative advantage. Absolute advantage refers to that trade, which is not reciprocally favorable as opposed to a Comparative trade, where trade is reciprocally favorable. 3. Explain the Law of Demand. The law of demand states that as the price of a service or good increases, consumer demand for the service or good will decrease and vice versa, provided all other factors remain constant. 4. Explain the Law of Supply The law of supply states that as the price of a service or good increases, the quantity of services or goods tendered by suppliers increases and vice versa, provided all the factors remain constant. 5. Explain the effects of price ceilings. It is a kind of government measure, where it fixes a limit on the price to be charged on a product. Effective price ceiling must be different from the free market price. A price ceiling positioned below the free market price will put suppliers in a state where they can no longer charge what they had been charging, for that particular product. This will force some suppliers to move out of the market, hence reduction in the quantity produced. On the other side quantity demanded will increase for the same product because consumers are able to buy at a lower price. Since quantity demanded exceeds quantity produced, a shortage will occur and it will result to non-price competition 6. Explain the effects of price floors. It is a kind of government measure where it imposes a limit on the lowest price that can be charged on a product and for it to be effective it must be set higher than the equilibrium price. When the price floor is position above the market equilibrium price, consumers observe that they now have to pay a higher price for that particular product. Suppliers, on the other part are ensured higher price than what they were charging before. This has the effect of increasing production, hence excess supply of the product in the market. Thus to maintain price floor over a longer period, the government will be forced to take action to reduce the excess supply 7. Distinguish between private goods and public goods and explain the nature of the free-rider problem. Private goods are the kind of goods whose profits, are indivisibly spread over the whole community, even if the individuals do not desire to purchase it. While private goods refers to the ones that are divisible and can be provided separately to various individuals, without external costs or benefits to others. Positive externalities that are not remunerated normally result from the production of public goods. When private organizations are not getting all the profits of a public good that they have produced, there will be no sufficient incentives to produce it voluntarily. Hence, consumers will take advantage of public goods without sufficiently contributing to their production. Distinguish between average tax rates and marginal tax rates. Average tax rate refers to the total amount of taxes paid divide by income. It shows the sum of tax paid per dollar earned while marginal tax rate refers to the income tax rate paid on the last dollar of income earned 9. Distinguish between average tax rates and marginal tax rates. Average tax rate refers to the total amount of taxes paid divide by income. It shows the sum of tax paid per dollar earned while marginal tax rate refers to the income tax rate paid on the last dollar of income earned 10. Explain the structure of the US income tax system. The structure of US tax system is very complex one that entails payment to at least four various levels of government and many ways of taxation. US taxation comprises local government possibly consisting of one or more of township, municipal, county and district governments. It may also embrace regional entities like school and utility and transit districts as well as incorporating federal government and state 11. Describe how prices indexes are calculated and define the key types of price indexes Price indexes refers to a standardized average or a weighted average of prices for a given category of services and goods in a given place, over a given intermission of time Types of price indexes include consumer price index, producer price index and GDP deflator 12. Distinguish between nominal and real interest rates. Nominal interest is the rate of interest prior to adjustment for inflation in contrast to real interest rate and it encompasses all three risk factors plus the time value of money in contrast to real interest rate, which includes only systematic and regulatory risks. Generally, real interest rate is equal to nominal interest rate minus inflation and currency adjustment. 13. Describe the circular flow of income and output. The circular flow of income and output shows joint flow of income between consumers and producers. The mutually supporting entities of consumers and producers, referred to as households and firms respectively offer each other with factors to facilitate the easy flow of income. Firms supply consumers with services and goods in exchange for consumer spending and factors of production from the household. 14. Define gross domestic product (GDP). Gross domestic product is the total market value of all the final services and goods produced within a country over a given period. 15. Define economic growth. Economic growth refers to the sturdy process by which the productive capacity of the economy is increased over time to produce growing levels of national income and output 16. Discuss the fundamental factors that contribute to a nation’s economic development. Policies of national development need to be formulate in conformity with national needs, development priorities and conditions and should focus on the lessons erudite from decades of development. International cooperation in the formulation and implementation of macroecomic policies need to be reinforcing with an analysis to enhancing greater lucidity and consistency of domestic policies and in so doing reinforcing their effectiveness. 17. Describe the effect of economic growth on the long-run aggregate supply curve. Economic growth will cause the aggregate supply curve to shift. Positive economic growth will lead to increase in productive resources that will make it possible to produce more final services and goods, thus the natural level of real GDP increases. Positive economic growth will make the LAS curve to shift to the right and vice versa 18. Discuss the meaning of the long-run equilibrium for the economy as a whole. Long run equilibrium refers to where the aggregate demand and long run aggregate supply curves intersect. Output is fixed and the price level is variable in the long- run. Thus increases in aggregate demand leads to higher prices and vice versa 19. Discuss the central assumptions of the classical model. The central assumptions of classical model are that it assumes that economic agents’ posses’ perfect information and the markets are characterized by perfectly flexible wages and prices. The result of these assumptions if functional on the short run with fixed capital stock is that output is dogged by independent supply factors 20. Describe the short-run determination of equilibrium real GDP and the price level in the classical model. The aggregate supply-aggregate demand is the fundamental macroeconomic tool for studying output variations and the resolve of the price level and inflation rate. The intersection of the aggregate demand and supply curves determines the economy’s equilibrium price level and equilibrium real domestic output 21. Distinguish between saving and savings and explain how saving and consumption are related. Saving refers to that process of constantly putting aside a sum of money while savings is that income received by a consumer not used in the output of firms through spending. Savings and consumption can be related in the equation where income is equal to the sum of savings and expenditure (consumption) 22. Identify the primary determinants of planned investment. The primary determinants of a planned investment include the expected return from investments, the taxation of returns, the cost of capital in relation to interest rate and the ease of use of savings to meet investments 23. Discuss ways in which indirect crowding out and direct expenditures offsets can reduce the effectiveness of fiscal policy actions. Inflation has an indirect outcome on international competitiveness. As prices increase, products tend to be more expensive relative to foreign products. This will result to reduced demand for exports as compared to imports. Net export being a parameter of aggregate demand will contracts GDP and partly offsets the expansionary fiscal policy. Expansionary fiscal policy makes interest rates to increase because the government must borrow to finance the increased deficit. The government raises revenues through taxes or borrowing. Hence, as the interest increases, private investment decreases. In the short run, it will decrease private investment demand, a parameter of aggregate demand and this will effectively lower GDP. Describe how certain aspects of fiscal policy function as automatic stabilizers for the economy. Automatic stabilizers are programs that automatically increase fiscal policy during recessions and contract it during booms. Unemployment insurance is an exemplar of automatic stabilizer in that the government spends more money for the period of recessions when unemployment rate is high. Equally, taxes are roughly proportional to profits and wages; hence, the size of taxes collected is higher during boom than recession. 25. Explain how federal government budget deficits occur. Federal government deficit occurs when it pays out more money than it can receive 26. Define the public debt and understand alternative measures of the public debt. Public debt refers to the credit or money owed by any echelon of government; federal government, central government and municipal government or local government. The debt is seen as an absolute number and can therefore measured as a percentage of the GDP. Alternatively, it can be measured by the amount owed in any given year. 27. Define the fundamental functions of money. Money can be described in terms of its core functions that are; it act as a medium of exchange, store of value and as a unit of account. 28. Identify key properties that any good that functions as money must possess. Properties of money is that it should be able to serve as (1) means of exchange (2) a enumerative (3)a source of liquidity and (4) store of value 29. Describe how the Federal Reserve assesses reserve requirements on banks and other depository institutions. The reserve requirement is a bank rule that puts the minimum reserves each bank must hold to customer notes and deposits. The reserves are meant to assure withdrawal demands. Federal Reserve approval is essential to begin any foreign banking institution in the US. Foreign banks need acquire regulatory approval from the OCC or the state banking supervisor when establishing new branches and agencies. Banks that are federally licensed must deposit cash or suitable securities at approved depository to convince the capital equivalency requirements specified by the IBA 30. Explain why the money supply changes when someone deposits in a depository institution a check drawn on the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve buys and sells government securities. These, increases or decreases banks capabilities of making loans. This equally decreases or increases interest rates. If Federal Reserve sells a bond, an institution or individual buys the bond with a debit on their account and transfers the funds to the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve removes an equivalent amount from the bank reserve of the customer. The bank will then take away the equivalent amount from the customer’s account who bought the bond. This will decrease money supply and increase interest rates. The trend changes when the Federal Reserve decides to buy a bond 31. Identify the key factors that influence the quantity of money that people desire to hold. Motives for holding money, which can be expressed as factors that influence people to hold money, are transaction motives, precautionary motives and speculative motives 32. Describe how the Federal Reserves Tools of monetary policy influence market interest rates. The Federal Reserve buys and sells government securities. These increases or decreases banks capabilities of making loans. This equally decreases or increases interest rates. If Federal Reserve sells a bond, an institution or individual buys the bond with a debit on their account and transfers the funds to the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve then removes an equivalent amount from the bank reserve of the customer. The bank will then take away the equivalent amount from the customer’s account who bought the bond. This will decrease money supply and increase interest rates. The trend changes when the Federal Reserve decides to buy a bond 33. Explain why the actual unemployment might depart from the natural rate of unemployment. The departure of the natural and actual rates of unemployment is a sign of the business cycle. The stages when actual unemployment exceeds the natural unemployment are times of recession or early stages of economic recovery. The stages when actual rate is below the natural are times of a booming economy 34. Describe why there may be an inverse relationship between the inflation rate and the unemployment rate, reflected by the Phillips curve. The inverse relationship in the Philips curve can be explained well when you consider that with high unemployment laborers would accept lower wages and this would reduce firms’ cost. High wages bring about high inflation and the lower the rate of unemployment, the higher the rate of inflation and vice versa. 35. Explain why population growth can have uncertain effect on economic growth. There is no clear-cut explanation of the effect of population growth on economic growth. It can be argued that high population growth creates pressures on limited natural resources, decreases public and private capital formation and redirects counts to maintaining relative to increasing the stock of capital per worker. It can also have affirmative effects like economies of scale and specialization. Describe how government inefficiencies have contributed to the creation of relatively large quantities of dead capital in the worlds developing nations. Government poor policies make capital investment impossible. The government tends to involve in the production of consumption goods that are less important. The rate at which the economy can absorb extra human capital is low and therefore it leaves the available resource idle. The government is also not receptive to new technology whish is important in the formation of capital. Discuss the worldwide importance of international trade. International trade is very crucial for the development of a country in that it expands the choices that could otherwise been limited to what can be produced locally. Thus, countries can access goods and services cheaply from abroad. Labor can also be obtained cheaply in some countries. Cheap labor reduces production costs and this will have effect to low prices to the final product. Therefore, countries can import final product at a much lower price compared to when produced locally where labor is very expensive. Explain why nations can gain from specializing in production and engaging in international trade. A country specializing in the production of goods which it has comparative advantage will profit and it will trade for goods which it does not have comparative advantage. Therefore, free trade will make a country to use its resources efficiently. Efficient use of resources will increase the amount of goods available for production and consumption. Hence, the benefits of trade will be the outcome of specialization 39. Distinguish between the balance of trade and the balance of payments. The balance refers to discrepancy between a county’s exports and imports and it is the major part of a country’s balance of payments, which is an accounting report of the economic transactions that have taken place stuck between the inhabitants of one country and the inhabitants of other country over a particular period. 40. Identify the key accounts within the balance of payments. Key accounts within the balance of payments are current account, capital account and financial account. References Ariel, R. Lecture Notes in Microeconomic Theory: The Economic Agent. New York: Princeton University Press, 2006

Analysis Of Sentence Structure In Childrens Literature English Language Essay

Analysis Of Sentence Structure In Childrens Literature English Language Essay The Oxford Dictionary offers us two definitions of a sentence. Firstly it is defined as a set of words complete in itself as the expression of a thought, containing or implying a subject and predicate, and conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or command secondly as a piece of writing or speech between two full stops or equivalent pauses often including several grammatical sentences. (Illustrated Oxford Dictionary, 2003) As DuÃ…Â ¡kovà ¡ says, the definition of a sentence can be made on the base of several points of view. We can be considering the content, function, grammar or phonetics. However a sentence comes into existence when the relationship of its items is fully expressed and that falls into the grammatical point of view. (DuÃ…Â ¡kovà ¡, 1988, str. 309) The Simple sentence Types of sentences according to their syntactic structure A simple sentence is a sentence which consists of only one independent clause. Quirk names seven types of simple sentence according to the presence of clause elements. The simplest structure is a structure consisting of a subject (S) and a verb (V or P as predicator), e.g. The Sun is shining. Another type is (S) subject + (V) verb + (O) object, e.g. That lecture bored me. In the third type of a simple sentence, the verb is followed by subject complement (SVCp), e.g. Your dinner seems ready. The fourth structure has its verb followed by an adverbial (SVA), e.g. My office is in the next building. The following structure consists of subject, verb and two objects from which one is direct (Oi) and the second indirect (Od), e.g. I (S) must send (V) my parents (Oi) an anniversary card (Od). In the sixth type of structure the subject and the verb is followed by an object and an object complement (Co), e.g. Most students have found her reasonably useful. The last type of a simple sentence is a structure where the subject and the verb are followed by an object and an adverbial (SVOA), e.g. You can put the dish on the table. (Quirk, 1985, p. 204) Other variations of clause patterns Passive structures Passive structure, together with the active structure, falls into the category of voice. In passive sentences the structure of the clause is reorganized and the information focus changes. The direct object in active structures can become the subject in passive structures, e.g. They regarded roots as peasant food.à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Roots were regarded as peasant food. The subject of the original active structure either disappears of it changes into an adjunct in the passive structure, using by, e.g. Roots were regarded as peasant food by the court. We recognize two kinds of passive, short, which is more common, and long. We talk about short passives when the agent of the action is not given. When the agent is expressed in the passive structure, introduced by by, we deal with the long passive. As mentioned above, the information focus in passive structures is different compared to the active structures. In passive structures the agent is no more in the centre of attention and the main focus is transferred to the action itself. In some cases, the passive structure is a result of speakers direct intention to avoid mentioning the agent. Existential clauses Existential clause is a kind of clause where the position of the subject is taken by the anticipatory subject, so called existential there. Existential clause are structures containing verbs that denote existence, appearance or motion, especially the verb to be. (Biber, 1999, str. 153) The function of existential clauses is simply to express existence of something. Verb Verb Classes There are three classes of verbs: intransitive, transitive (further divided to monotransitive, ditransitive and complex-transitive) and copular verbs. Each class occurs in a certain type of sentence structure. Intransitive verbs There is no other element required with intransitive verbs; these verbs are a part of the S+V structure, e.g. fly, blink, sleepà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Transitive verbs Transitive verbs are all verbs that require an object. Monotransitive verbs: one other element (O) is required (SVO structure), e.g. lose, break, find. Ditransitive verbs: two more elements are required (SVOiOd structure), e.g. give, hand, offer. Complex-transitive verbs: an object complement or an adjunct is necessary in the SVO structure, e.g. keep- They keep the house preserved., call- She called her kitten Smudgie., appoint- They appointed him President. Copular verbs Need a subject complement (SVCs) or an adjunct (SVA), e.g. be, feel, smell. Clause Elements Subject The presence of a subject is necessary in all finite clauses with the exception of the imperative clauses. Though not present, the subject is implied in the imperative clauses. There is one more case when the subject is not stated in the clause and it is the case when the ellipsis is used. Ellipsis, one of the figures of speech, is an omission of a word, a subject in our case, because the speaker expects the listener to be able to deduce the missing word from the context of from the previous knowledge, e.g. Thank you.. The most frequent realization of the subject is by nouns or pronouns, but the subject can be also realized by other word classes and then we are talking about syntactic nouns, e.g. The weak (Adj) must be helped.. The subject determines the number and the person of the verb e.g. John speaks Russian very well., the number, person and gender of the reflexive pronouns, e.g. She could not recognize herself in the mirror. The relationship between the subject and the verb is a relationship of mutual influence. In passive clauses the subject becomes the subject complement using by, e.g. John (S) drove us. and We were driven by John (Cs)., or the agent is omitted. In tag questions, the subject is repeated by a pronoun of the same, person, number and gender, e.g. John is a good teacher, isnt he?. Predicator Predicator is a clause element realized solely by verb. Some grammars do not use the term predicator and call this clause element simply a verb. Predicator may consist of a full verb alone or a full verb accompanied by one or more auxiliary verbs, e.g. Prince Brat knew that he had nothing to fear. He had never been spanked in his life. Predicator is a central element of a clause as it denotes the action do or the state be. Objects There are two types of object, indirect and direct. An object is a sentence element that may be either obligatory or facultative according to the verb. Direct Object Like the indirect object, the direct object is usually a nominal group. When there is no indirect object in the clause, the direct object follows the transitive verb, e.g. He kicked the ball. In complex structures, there may be the anticipatory it in the position of the direct object while the direct object is realized by an infinitive or a subordinate clause, e.g. He found it difficult to tell the truth. He found it sad that she didnt trust him. Indirect Object Is typically realized by a nominal group, e.g. Charles gave Alice a glass of champagne. or by a pronoun. Though very rare, indirect object may be also realized by wh-clause, e.g. Give whoever comes a glass of champagne. It follows only ditransitive verbs. (Biber) Complements A complements is a clausal element that is in relation with either subject (subject complement) or object (object complement). In contrast with the object, the complement cannot be converted into a passive form. Both, subject and object complements are most typically realized by an adjectival group, or by a nominal group. Subject Complement In some grammars (Biber, 1999, str. 126), we can find the subject complement (Cs) under the term subject predicative. The subject complement can be found in SVCs structures, following copular verbs, e.g. This place is beautiful. Object Complement Also called an object predicative (Po) (Biber, 1999, str. 130), the object complement (Co) is a clause element that we can find in structures containing complex transitive verbs (SVOCo). I find this place suitable. As we can see in the example, the object complement relates to the direct object and also usually follows the direct object. (Biber, 1999, str. 130) Adverbials Adverbials are very diverse clause elements. They may be added to any structure and can be found in various positions within the sentence. Adverbials have many semantic roles and may be either optional or obligatory. There are three classes of adverbials named in the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English: circumstance, stance and linking adverbials (Biber, 1999, str. 131), these three categories correspond to Quirks adjunct, disjunct and conjunct. (Quirk, 1985) The most common realizations of adverbials are adverbial groups and prepositional phrases. Adjunct We can say that adjuncts add some circumstance information to the structure. They may be elicited by questioning Where, When, How or Why. Most verbs, even the intransitive ones, are often supplemented by an adjunct, giving the circumstance information, e.g. He died of eating some poisonous mushrooms. If there is no adjunct in a structure with an intransitive verb, the understandability of the utterance is dependent on the context (Quirk, 1985, p. 506), e.g. He ate some poisonous mushrooms and he died. Disjunct Disjuncts are not a real part of the structure. As Quirk says, disjuncts have a superior role in the sentence. (Quirk, 1985, p. 613) Most utterances we produce are not objective, they usually express our attitude or opinion about the content of the utterance. A disjunct is the speakers comment on the content of the utterance, e.g. To be frank, it didnt live up to my expectations. Conjunct As well as disjuncts, conjuncts have relatively superordinate position in the sentence. (Quirk, 1985, p. 631) The function of conjunct is to join relatively independent units by means of expressions like: as well, however, instead, firstly and it also includes reaction signals like hmm, aha, well. The relationship between the two units is set from the point of view of the speaker, e.g. His results are not very good, on the other hand he tried hard. Semantic roles of clause elements There are several semantic roles within every clause element, different grammars offer different classifications, so in this text, I am going to name just those that are relevant for the analysis of childrens literature. Participants Every element of a sentence realized by a noun phrase is a participant, e.g. Prince Brat (S) shot Jemmy (Oi) a poisonous look (Od). (Fleishman, 1987, p. 28) Agent, affected, recipient The role of agent is a typical role of a subject in a sentence containing a direct object. (Quirk, 1985, p. 741) The subject-agent is the initiator of the action, e.g. The prince moved his arms and shoulders. (Fleishman, 1987, p. 61) The affected participant role is a role typical for the direct object. The affected participant does not initiate the action, but there is a certain involvement in the action, (Quirk, 1985, p. 741), e.g. Prince Brat tied their powdered wigs to the backs of their oak chairs. (Fleishman, 1987, p. 1) Another participant role is the role of recipient. This role is usual for the indirect objects, but it can also be the role of a subject in passive structures of ditransitive verbs (DuÃ…Â ¡kovà ¡, 1988, str. 398), e.g. He was given a second chance. This participant has a passive, recipient, role in the action.Cutwater, serve them up our finest bread and herring. (Fleishman, 1987, p. 16) Attribute The attribute role is a role usual for both complements, subject and object complement. The complements give us the characterization of the subject or the object, e.g. Billy was a big man, he saw, big and raw as a skinned ox. (Fleishman, 1987, p. 12) It had a very large wet nostrils. Its a pig! said dad. (Hughes, 1992) External causer and instrument roles An external causer is usually some natural force, that unwittingly causes some action to happen (Quirk, 1985, p. 743),e.g. The flood damaged a great part of the village. We talk about the role of an instrument, when the subject or the object are used as tools of some action, e.g. This sharp knife will help you. The role of process The role of process is a role expressed by the verb. There are several subcategories of the role of process. The process of activity, of doing, e.g. Then Grandma and Mum came by to do some shopping. (Hughes, 1992) The process of communication, verbal process, e.g. Alfie asked them whether they were coming to buy something at the shop. Then the mental process of perception, e.g. Inside the tent he could hear Dad breathing. Another kind of mental process is the process of affectivity, e.g. Alfie liked Bonting a lot. There is also the process of cognition, e.g. He remembered that he had put him out to dry after his swim. The role of circumstance Again, there are several subcategories of the role of circumstance, but in this paper, we are going to deal just with three of them which are considered to be the most common, i.e. locative, temporal and the role of manner. Locative Locative circumstance role is a role expressing the position, distance and direction (Biber, 1999, str. 776), e.g. a Common boy was kept in the castle to be punished in his place. (Fleishman, 1987, p. 2) Temporal The role of temporal circumstance can express position in time, duration or frequency (Biber, 1999, str. 777), e.g. It was very late when they arrived home. Manner The last role of circumstance I am going to mention is the role of manner. The circumstance of manner tells us in what way some action was done or in what way something happened, e.g. Of course I can! answered the prince in a stinging voice. (Fleishman, 1987, p. 50) The role of circumstance is most common for adverbials, but it can also be the role of a subject, e.g. The night was dark. Multiple sentence Multiple sentence is a clause consisting of more than one clause. Quirk also makes distinction between two kinds of multiple sentences, the compound and the complex sentence. Compound sentence is a sentence that consists of two or more equal main clauses. Complex sentence is a structure consisting of one main clause that is superordinate, and at least one subordinate clause. (Quirk, 1985, p. 988) Syntactic relationships There are two types of syntactic relationship, the paratactic relationship; the relationship of grammatical equivalence and the hypotactic relationship; the relationship of grammatical nonequivalence. (Quirk, 1985, p. 918) Realisation of syntactic relationships The paratactic relationship may be expressed either by coordinating conjunctions, then we are talking about coordination or it may be expressed without the use of conjunctions and than we are talking about juxtaposition. The hypotactic relationship may be of subordination, using subordinating conjunctions or ,as in the previous case, juxtaposition i.e. without the use of conjunctions. Types of clauses in a hypotactic relationsip Dependent Clauses- Subordinate Clauses Finite clause Finite clause is a clause that contains a finite verb, e.g. Leaves crackled under Jemmys feet as he began to back off. We distinguish four types of finite clauses according to the purpose they serve in the discourse, i.e. what is the speakers intention to make the discourse and what is the expected response of his or her audience. Types of finite clauses Nominal Clauses Clauses that represent subject or direct object in the main clause are nominal clauses. This type of clause is introduced either by the subordinator that, or by wh-word, e.g. What youve just said is a total nonsense. Adverbial Clauses Adverbial clauses express the circumstances of the main clause and function as adverbials, they also share the same semantic classification with adverbials, e.g. If they were here, they would like it. Relative Clauses Relative clauses, also called adjectival clauses, function as postmodifiers of the noun phrase, which is called the antecedent. This type of clause is introduce by relative pronouns. Relative clauses may be defining of non-defining (restrictive or non restrictive). Restrictive relative clauses add some information that cannot be omitted without changing the meaning of the clause. Restrictive relative clauses identify the antecedent, e.g. The colours which has been chosen are not appropriate. Nonrestrictive relative clauses supply the clause with some additional information which is not necessary for understanding the main message of the clause, e.g. Jemmy, who was obliged to be close at hand for the daily lessons, reckoned that freedom was now close at hand. Comparative clauses The function of comparative clauses is to compare properties of some feature. According to Quirk (1985), there are three types of comparison, the comparison of equivalence (or of nonequivalence), e.g. Alfies elephant was old, nearly as old as Alfie., of sufficiency, e.g. It was big enough for two people to lie down in., or of excess, e.g. Annie Rose was too little to go camping. Reporting Clauses Reporting clause is a part of a direct speech. It introduces the speaker but it may also introduce the addressee, e.g. Bonting will have to have a new bathing suit, he told mum. , the type of act, e.g. But we cant leave Bonting behind! wailed Alfie. or the mode of the act, e.g. I didnt know Jim Gatting had put his pig in this field, grumbled Dad sleepily. The reporting clause may take the initial, medial and final position in the direct speech. The verb of the reporting clause is most commonly in the past tense form. Comment Clauses Comment clauses express speakers attitude to the content of the sentence, e.g. Tipped us over, as you see. While Biber (1999) compares comment clauses to reporting clauses with the verb in present tense, Quirk (1985) considers comment clauses a kind of disjunct. Types of finite clauses according to their function in utterance Declarative clauses In most cases, this type of clause expresses a statement and its purpose is to give information, e.g. Mum and Grandma were sitting in the garden having a cup of tea. In affirmative declarative clauses, as in the example above, the subject precedes the predicator. In negative declarative clauses, the subject is followed by auxiliary or modal verb, the negative particle and then comes the full verb, e.g. He didnt yelp or bellow. Interrogative clauses By means of interrogative clauses, the speaker wants to elicit some information. There are three main types of interrogative clauses: yes/no questions, wh- questions and alternative questions. Yes/no questions Yes/no questions, first main type interrogative clauses, which may also be called polar questions, is an interrogative to which the expected reaction of the addressee is either affirmation of negation, e.g. The ladies shrieked. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Did the ladies shriek? Compared to declarative clauses, the word order of interrogative clauses is different. In case of the verb to be, the question can be created by means of inversion, e.g. Its called Burrows and company. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Is it called Burrows and company? When the clause contains an auxiliary verb, the auxiliary goes in front of the subject with the full verb following, e.g. The king offered a reward for the whipping boy. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Has the king offered a reward for the whipping boy? When the sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb, the first auxiliary precedes the subject and the other auxiliaries follow the subject together with the full verb, e.g. Our prince has been abducticated. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Has our prince been abducated? The same rule is applied when a modal verb is a part of the verb phrase, e.g. A horse can always find his way home.à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Can a horse always find his way home. When there is no auxiliary verb in the declarative clause, the int errogative is created by means of do, e.g. We dress you up fancy and feed you royal .à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Do we dress you up fancy and feed you royal? Interrogative yes/no clauses may also be negative, e.g. Wasnt it your mother? The speaker usually uses negative questions in order to reassure himself or herself rather than to get some new information. In the structure of negative interrogative yes/no questions the negative particle follows the auxiliary or modal verb and precedes the subject. Question tags Question tags are not fully independent clauses, they are a part of a structure containing another, usually a declarative clause. Question tag is a tool supporting the interaction, using it, the speaker encourages the addressee to respond to the information given in the declarative clause. This type of interrogative consists of an operator and a personal pronoun. The operator of the tag question normally corresponds to the operator of the preceding clause, e.g. You can fend for your own self, cant you! When there is no operator in the declarative clause, the dummy auxiliary do is used to create the tag question, e.g. They own this house, dont they? Question tags may be also added, and they often are, to a clause which is not complete, e.g. The highwayman, are you! Wh-questions Another type of interrogative clauses are wh-questions. When the wh-word is a part of the subject, the word order is the same as in declarative clauses, e.g. Who cooks the dinner? When the wh-word is a part of another clause element, the common word order of interrogative clauses is used, e.g. Why did you do that! One type of interrogative questions are indirect interrogatives. The indirect questions (also reported questions) consist of projecting and projected clause, these are connected by means of whether or if, e.g. The children asked whether the story was true. As well as yes/no questions, the wh- questions may be negative, e.g. Where shouldnt we go? Alternative questions The last main type of interrogative clauses are alternative questions. These clauses are similar to polar interrogative clauses in the structure, but instead of expecting yes or no answers, it offers alternatives, presuming that one of the alternatives is the one to be chosen by the addressee, e.g. Would you like coffee or tea? Alternative interrogatives can also take the form of a combination of wh- question and elliptic alternative question, e.g. What would you like, coffee or tea? Minor types of interrogative clauses There are two more types of interrogatives that are, as to their occurrence, considered minor. These are called exclamatory questions and rhetorical questions. Exclamatory and rhetorical questions both have the typical interrogative structure. Exclamatory questions are usually negative yes/no questions, where the speakers intention is to receive the reaction of an assertion, e.g. Aint I already been whipped twice today! Rhetorical questions do not ask for any answers, they may be negative or positive yes/no questions expecting positive or negative assertion, e.g. Didnt I tell you who I was! Imperative Clauses The function of imperative clauses, some grammars e.g. (Quirk, 1985) use the term directives, is to give directives, i.e. instructions, orders, commands etc. Most typically, there is no subject in imperative clauses directed to 2nd person singular and plural, in fact there is no need of subject in this type of clause, as the addressee of the imperative is usually obvious from the context of the situation, e.g. Fetch the whipping boy! However, in order to make the directive stronger, the personal pronoun you may be used, e.g. You fetch the whipping boy! The subject can be also present in the tag question, e.g. Fetch the whipping boy, will you? When 1st and 3rd person singular and plural are the intended addresses, the imperative may be created by means of let, in this type of structure, the verb let is followed by the subject in objective case (Quirk, 1985, p. 829) e.g. Let me have a word with him! Except for let me, this type of clause is rather archaic. In colloquial English, the contracted form of let us, lets is commonly used, e.g. Lets parley! Imperative clauses may also take the negative form, e.g. And dont try to run away. or Lets not talk about it. Exclamative Clauses The function of this type of clause is to express some emotional impression like surprise, shock or others. According to Quirk (1985), exclamative clauses are only these starting with the wh- element how or what, e.g. What horrible new mischief was this! Bibers definition of the exclamative clauses is, compared to Quirks, more loose as Bibers exclamative clauses include other structures like declaratives, interrogatives or exclamative questions, e.g. Whats keeping you! Non-finite clauses Non-finite clause are clauses containing a non-finite verb, that is to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle or -ed participle. For example: He was determined never to spring a tear for the prince to gloat over. According to Biber (1999), a verbless clause can also be considered a non-finite clause. Each of the four main types of non-finite clause can take the form of a structure with or without the subject. Non-finite clauses lack modal auxiliaries and they are not marked as to the tense. Non-finite clauses may represent many syntactic roles, e.g. One afternoon, Mum gave Alfie a long cardboard box to play with., in this example the non-finite, to-infinitive, clause functions as an adverbial. The interpretation of the meaning on a non-finite clause is dependent on the main clause. Logico-semantic relationship- Expansion and Projection The advantage of multiple clauses, in contrast with simple clauses, is the ability to express more complex situations. In other words, a multiple clause is more precise in description of the reality as it is a reflection of our cognitive organisation of the situation. The logico-semantic relationships are described in detail in Hallidays An Introduction to Functional Grammar (1994). The following overview of the logico-semantic relationships is based on this publication. 4.1. Expansion Halliday (1994) describes expansion as a relationship when the clauses contain different kind of additional information. There are three subcategories of expansion: elaboration, extension and enhancement. Each of these subcategories may be of paratactic or hypotactic relationship. 4.1.1. Paratactic elaboration Exposition Using conjunctive elements such as in other words or that is in a sentence, we make a new statement about the content of the first clause from a different perspective. This kind of elaboration is called exposition. Exemplification Exemplification is another kind of paratactic elaboration, evolving the content of the preceding clause by giving an example, using conjunctive elements such as for instance or for example. Clarification Expressions like in fact or indeed are conjunctive elements that clarify the content of the first clause, therefore this kind of paratactic elaboration is called clarification. 4.1.2. Hypotactic elaboration Hypotactic elaboration is the relationship in non-defining (also non-restrictive clauses). 4.1.3. Paratactic extension- coordination Addition And, also, nor, in addition or furthermore are conjunctive elements putting together two situations in positive, negative or adversative relationship. As we are extending the content of the first clause by adding some information this, kind of paratactic extension is called Addition. Variation When the first clauses content is replaced by the content of the second clause by means of but or instead we talk about variation. Alternation When the first clause is given an alternative to its content by the second clause, using conjunctive elements such as eitherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ or and on the other hand, it is the paratactic relationship of alternation. Explanation Explanation, also called specification, is a kind of extension, using conjunctive elements like that is or which means, where the content of the first clause is explained by the second clause. 4.1.4. Hypotactic extension Contrastive dependency When the dependent clause contrasts with the main clause in the case of contrastive dependency, common conjunctive elements for this kind of relationship are while or whereas. Subtractive dependency Subtractive dependency is a relationship of a main and a dependent clause, where the dependent clause subtracts from the main clause by means of expressions such as except that or but for the fact. Using elements like whereas, except that etc. may lead to the impression that the clauses are in a paratactic relationship. We can recognize the kind of relationship by exchanging the position of the clauses, if this exchange functions well, i.e. the rheme sentence is able to become the theme sentence, we can say that the relationship is hypotactic. The additive, adversative, contrastive, or subtractive relationships may be also expressed by non-finite -ing clause, using besides, instead of, without etc. 4.1.5. Paratactic enhancement Paratactic enhancement is a relationship realized by coordination or juxtaposition, being supported by conjunctions e.g. then, still, otherwise; conjunctive combinations e.g. and then, and so, and yet; or by cohesive combinations with and e.g. and in that way, and in this case; that give the information about the circumstances. 4.1.6. Hypotactic enhancement This kind of relationship is realized by adverbial clauses. 4.2. Projection The logico-semantic relationship of projection is the one expressed by direct and indirect speech. Selected titles For the sentence structure analysis, I selected two books of contemporary authors of childrens literature- Sid Fleischmans The Whipping Boy and Shirley Hughes The Big Alfie Out of Doors. Though the titles are relatively recent, both of them are appreciated and well known in the countries of their origin, in case of Sid Fleishmans Whipping Boy even abroad. Sid Fleischman and Shirley Hughes belong to the winners of prestigious awards that are given to the most significant contributors to childrens literature in the United States (Fleischman) and in the United Kingdom (Hughes). The titles chosen for the analysis deliberately differ in the target age group they are intended for. The minimal age distance between the readers of these two books is three years. The purpose is to demonstrate how the complexity of the sentence structures in a childrens book changes with the age of its intended readers. The Whipping Boy The Whipping Boy is a childrens book by American, Brooklyn-born author Sid Fleishman. Sid Fleishman is a very popular and respected author in the field of childrens literature not only in the USA, his works have been translated into fourteen languages. (Fleishman, 1987) The Whipping Boy is a book that mad